Chapter 2: Expansion Cards, Storage & Power

A+ Core 1 — 220-1101 | Domain 3.3, 3.4, 3.5

Chapter 2:
Expansion Cards, Storage & Power

Adding functionality, storing data, and keeping the system powered. From PCIe expansion cards through RAID arrays to 80 PLUS efficiency ratings.

22 Slides Domain 3.3, 3.4 & 3.5 Expansion • HDD • SSD • RAID • PSU Exam 220-1101

Slide 2 of 22

Expansion Cards Overview

Add-on cards plug into motherboard slots to extend or upgrade system capabilities.

Video Cards (GPU)

Dedicated graphics processor with its own VRAM (4–24 GB). Requires PCIe x16 slot. High-end cards need 6-pin or 8-pin supplemental power connectors from the PSU. Multiple outputs: HDMI, DisplayPort, DVI.

Sound Cards

Upgrades audio beyond integrated motherboard sound. Higher sampling rates and bit depth, lower latency for professional audio. Multiple jacks for surround-sound configurations. Uses PCIe x1 slot.

Network Cards (NICs)

Wired NICs: 1 Gbps, 2.5 Gbps, 10 Gbps Ethernet via PCIe x1. Wireless NICs: Wi-Fi 5 (802.11ac), Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax), with external antenna connectors. Some wireless NICs use M.2 E-key slot instead of PCIe.

Capture Cards

Records HDMI video from external sources (consoles, cameras). Passthrough output for zero-latency gaming while recording. Used in streaming and content creation. Typically PCIe x4 for bandwidth headroom.

USB Expansion Cards

Adds USB 3.0/3.1/3.2 or USB-C ports to older systems lacking them. Available as rear-port only or with internal headers. Uses PCIe x1 slot. Useful when motherboard USB headers are exhausted.

RAID Controllers

Dedicated hardware RAID card offloads parity calculation from the CPU. Supports more drives than onboard SATA ports. Used in servers and high-availability workstations. Typically PCIe x4 or x8.

Slide 3 of 22

Installing Expansion Cards

Correct procedure prevents electrostatic discharge damage and POST failures.

Installation Steps

1. Power off and unplug from AC.
2. Ground yourself (ESD wrist strap).
3. Remove slot cover bracket from case.
4. Insert card firmly and evenly into slot — no rocking.
5. Secure bracket screw.
6. Connect supplemental power if required (GPUs).
7. Boot and install drivers.

Post-Install Troubleshooting

Card not detected: reseat the card — poor contact is common.
GPU powers on but no display: check PCIe power connectors.
BSOD after GPU install: driver conflict — use DDU (Display Driver Uninstaller) and reinstall clean.
BIOS/UEFI may have slot enable/disable settings — verify PCIe slot is enabled.

Exam Tip

Always power off and unplug before installing expansion cards. GPUs that are not connected to their supplemental power connector will fail to POST or produce error beeps. Missing CPU power (EPS connector) produces the same symptom — know how to distinguish the two.

ESD Warning

Expansion cards contain CMOS and MOSFET components that can be destroyed by static discharge far below the threshold humans can feel. Always use an ESD wrist strap or regularly touch the metal case frame before handling cards. Never slide cards across clothing or carpets.

Slide 4 of 22

Hard Disk Drives: Fundamentals

Spinning magnetic platters, read/write heads, and data organization terms.

Key Components

Platters: Magnetic disks stacked on a spindle; data stored as magnetic polarity changes.
Read/Write Heads: Float 3–5 nm above the platter surface; one per side.
Spindle Motor: Spins platters at constant RPM.
Actuator Arm: Moves heads across the platter.

Data Organization

Track: Concentric circle on platter surface.
Sector: Pie-slice of a track; 512 bytes (legacy) or 4096 bytes (Advanced Format).
Cylinder: Same track number across all platters (vertical stack).
Cluster: Group of sectors; smallest addressable unit for the file system.

RPM & Form Factors

5,400 RPM: Laptops, NAS, external drives — quieter, lower power.
7,200 RPM: Desktop standard — best balance of speed and cost.
10,000 RPM: Performance workstations.
15,000 RPM: Enterprise SAS — fastest, hottest, loudest.
3.5" desktop • 2.5" laptop/external.

Technician Note

HDDs have moving parts and are vulnerable to shock, vibration, and strong magnetic fields. Never move a powered HDD. A head crash (head contacts platter) destroys data and requires professional recovery. Always handle drives parallel to the ground.

Slide 5 of 22

Storage Interfaces: PATA vs. SATA

Legacy parallel ribbon cable vs. current serial point-to-point standard.

PATA / IDE (Legacy)

Parallel ATA — 40-pin flat ribbon cable. Maximum 133 MB/s (UDMA 6). Supports two devices per cable via Master/Slave jumper configuration. Wide ribbon blocks airflow. Largely replaced by SATA after 2003. Still occasionally found on embedded systems and industrial equipment.

SATA (Current)

Serial ATA — thin 7-pin L-shaped data cable, separate 15-pin power. SATA I: 1.5 Gbps. SATA II: 3.0 Gbps. SATA III: 6 Gbps (~550 MB/s practical). One device per cable — no jumper configuration. Hot-swappable on most controllers. Backward compatible across versions.

Interface	Max Speed	Connector	Devices/Cable	Status
PATA (IDE)	133 MB/s	40-pin ribbon	2 (master/slave)	Legacy
SATA I	150 MB/s	7-pin L-shaped	1	Legacy
SATA II	300 MB/s	7-pin L-shaped	1	Older hardware
SATA III	600 MB/s	7-pin L-shaped	1	Current standard
eSATA	600 MB/s	External SATA	1	External hot-swap

Slide 6 of 22

Solid State Drives: Types & Technology

NAND flash memory with no moving parts — faster, more durable, uses less power than HDDs.

SATA SSD (2.5")

Same interface as HDDs but uses NAND flash. Max ~550 MB/s (SATA III ceiling). Direct HDD replacement for laptops and desktops. Reliable, affordable, widely available. Form factor: 2.5" or 3.5" with adapter. Bottlenecked by SATA interface — not by the NAND itself.

M.2 SATA SSD

M.2 form factor running the SATA protocol. No cable required — plugs directly into M.2 slot. Same speed ceiling as 2.5" SATA (~550 MB/s). Uses B-key or B+M-key M.2 slot. Compact design for laptops and small form factor systems. Verify slot supports SATA before purchasing.

M.2 NVMe SSD

M.2 form factor using the NVMe protocol over PCIe lanes. Dramatically faster: PCIe 3.0 x4: ~3,500 MB/s. PCIe 4.0 x4: ~7,000 MB/s. PCIe 5.0 x4: ~12,000+ MB/s. Uses M-key or B+M-key slot. Requires NVMe-capable M.2 slot. Default storage choice for modern builds.

SSD Advantages over HDD

No moving parts — shock-resistant. Silent operation. Much faster access times (<0.1 ms vs. 10+ ms HDD). Lower power draw. Smaller and lighter. Faster boot and application launch times.

SSD Wear Leveling

NAND flash has a finite number of Program/Erase cycles. The SSD controller uses wear leveling to distribute writes evenly across all cells, extending drive lifespan. TRIM command allows the OS to inform the SSD which blocks are no longer in use, improving performance.

Slide 7 of 22

NVMe & M.2 Deep Dive

M.2 key types, NVMe protocol, and PCIe bandwidth per generation.

M.2 Key	Interfaces Supported	Typical Use
B Key	SATA, PCIe x2	SATA SSDs, some NVMe
M Key	PCIe x4, SATA	NVMe SSDs (fastest)
B+M Key	SATA + PCIe x2	Universal compatibility
E Key	PCIe x2, USB	Wi-Fi / Bluetooth cards
A Key	PCIe x2, USB	Wi-Fi / Bluetooth cards

PCIe Bandwidth (x4 slot)

PCIe 3.0 x4: ~4 GB/s. PCIe 4.0 x4: ~8 GB/s. PCIe 5.0 x4: ~16 GB/s. NVMe protocol is optimized for flash: up to 64,000 I/O queues with 65,535 commands per queue. AHCI (SATA) supports only 1 queue with 32 commands — a massive bottleneck for modern SSDs.

Common Sizes

M.2 modules follow a naming convention: 2242 = 22mm wide, 42mm long. 2280 = 22mm wide, 80mm long (most common). 22110 = 22mm wide, 110mm long (enterprise/server). Always check motherboard manual for supported lengths — not all slots have screw standoffs for every size.

Critical Exam Tip

An NVMe SSD will NOT work in a SATA-only M.2 slot. A SATA M.2 SSD will NOT work in an NVMe-only M.2 slot. Check the motherboard specification carefully — physical slot fit does NOT guarantee compatibility. This is a frequently tested A+ scenario question.

Slide 8 of 22

RAID: Fundamentals

Redundant Array of Independent Disks — combining drives for performance, redundancy, or both.

RAID 0 — Striping

Minimum 2 drives. Data is split across all drives in parallel — maximum read and write performance. Usable capacity = sum of all drives. NO redundancy. If one drive fails, ALL data is lost. Use case: scratch disks, video editing where backups exist elsewhere.

RAID 1 — Mirroring

Minimum 2 drives. Every write is duplicated to both drives simultaneously. Full redundancy: one drive can fail and data is intact. Usable capacity = 50% of total raw capacity. Slightly faster reads (can read from both). Use case: OS drives, small critical data stores.

RAID 5 — Striping + Parity

Minimum 3 drives. Data and parity are distributed across all drives. One drive can fail and data is recovered from parity. Usable capacity = (n-1) drives. Good balance of performance and redundancy. Write penalty: parity must be calculated on every write. Most common enterprise configuration.

RAID 10 — Stripe + Mirror

Minimum 4 drives. Combines RAID 0 (striping) and RAID 1 (mirroring). Data is striped across mirrored pairs. Survives multiple drive failures if they are in different mirror pairs. 50% usable capacity. Best performance and redundancy combination. Preferred for databases and high-I/O workloads.

Critical Exam Fact

RAID is NOT a backup. RAID protects against drive failure but not against accidental deletion, ransomware, fire, or theft. Always maintain a separate backup in addition to RAID. This distinction appears repeatedly on A+ exams.

Slide 9 of 22

RAID Comparison

Side-by-side reference for the four exam-critical RAID levels.

Level	Min Drives	Usable Capacity	Redundancy	Performance	Best Use
RAID 0	2	100%	None	Best read/write	Scratch, video
RAID 1	2	50%	1 drive failure	Good read, normal write	OS, critical data
RAID 5	3	(n-1) drives	1 drive failure	Good read, write penalty	File servers
RAID 10	4	50%	Multiple (cross-mirror)	Best + redundancy	Databases, VMs

Scenario: A client’s file server has 4 identical 2 TB drives. They need fault tolerance and reasonable write performance. RAID 5 gives 6 TB usable with single-drive redundancy. RAID 10 gives 4 TB usable with faster writes and better fault tolerance. The choice depends on budget for additional drives versus performance requirements.

Hardware vs. Software RAID

Hardware RAID uses a dedicated controller card (has its own CPU and cache). Software RAID uses the main CPU (Windows Storage Spaces, mdadm on Linux). Hardware RAID is faster and transparent to the OS. Software RAID is cheaper but uses CPU cycles.

Hot Spare

An additional unallocated drive connected to the RAID controller. When a drive fails, the hot spare automatically joins the array and rebuilding begins immediately without human intervention. Not a RAID level — it is an add-on to any RAID configuration.

Slide 10 of 22

Removable Storage & Optical Drives

Flash media, SD cards, and optical disc formats still appear on A+ exams.

Flash Memory Formats

USB Flash Drives: Portable NAND storage via USB. Hot-swappable.
SD Card: Secure Digital — cameras, tablets. Standard, Mini, and Micro sizes.
CompactFlash: Larger older format for professional cameras — still in use.
All flash storage is hot-swappable.

Optical Disc Formats

CD-R/RW: 700 MB. R = write-once, RW = rewritable.
DVD-R/RW and DVD+R/RW: 4.7 GB (SL), 8.5 GB (DL). Competing formats, functionally equivalent.
Blu-ray BD-R/RE: 25 GB (SL), 50 GB (DL), 100 GB (TL). Highest optical capacity.

Practical Notes

Most modern systems ship without optical drives. External USB optical drives are available for legacy media and software. Blu-ray requires a Blu-ray drive — DVD drives cannot read Blu-ray discs. USB flash is faster and more reliable than optical for software deployment.

Format	Capacity	Writable
CD-R	700 MB	Write-once
DVD-R / DVD+R	4.7 GB (SL) / 8.5 GB (DL)	Write-once
BD-R	25 GB (SL) / 50 GB (DL)	Write-once
BD-RE	25 GB (SL) / 50 GB (DL)	Rewritable

Slide 11 of 22

Power Supply Unit: Fundamentals

The PSU converts AC wall power to the DC voltages all computer components require.

AC to DC Conversion

Input: 115V AC (US) or 220–240V AC (international). Output: multiple regulated DC voltage rails. Some PSUs have a manual voltage selector switch (115V/230V) — setting incorrectly can destroy the PSU and attached components. Modern auto-sensing PSUs detect input voltage automatically.

DC Output Rails

+12V: CPU, GPU, fans, drive motors — highest current demand.
+5V: SATA data logic, USB ports, older cards.
+3.3V: RAM, PCIe x1 cards, modern I/O circuitry.
-12V: Legacy serial port circuitry (very low current).
5VSB: 5V standby — powers Wake-on-LAN, USB charging while off.

Non-Modular

All cables permanently attached. Cannot remove unused cables. Creates cable clutter inside case. Lowest cost option. Adequate for standard builds where most cables are used.

Semi-Modular

Essential cables (24-pin ATX, EPS CPU) are permanently attached. Optional cables (SATA power, PCIe) are detachable. Good balance of convenience and cost.

Fully Modular

All cables detachable including the 24-pin. Maximum cable management flexibility. Cleanest builds. Highest cost. Only connect cables that are actually needed.

Slide 12 of 22

PSU Ratings & 80 PLUS Efficiency

Wattage, efficiency certification, and when to replace a PSU.

Wattage Rating

Total output capacity in watts. A 500W PSU can deliver a combined maximum of 500W across all rails. Size the PSU to handle peak system load plus 20–30% headroom for efficiency and future upgrades. High-end GPUs alone can draw 300–450W. Always calculate total system TDP when specifying a PSU.

80 PLUS Certification

Indicates the PSU converts AC to DC at 80%+ efficiency at 20%, 50%, and 100% load. Less waste heat. Lower electricity cost. Wasted power becomes heat inside the PSU, shortening its lifespan. Higher tier = better efficiency at all load levels.

Certification	Efficiency at 50% Load
80 PLUS (White)	80%
80 PLUS Bronze	85%
80 PLUS Silver	88%
80 PLUS Gold	90%
80 PLUS Platinum	92%
80 PLUS Titanium	94%

Exam Tip

Higher efficiency means less wasted power as heat. A 500W Gold PSU wastes less electricity than a 500W Bronze PSU at the same load. Know the tiers by name. Common reason to replace a PSU: failure, system upgrade requiring more power, or new GPU needing connectors the old PSU lacks.

Slide 13 of 22

PSU Connectors

Every connector is keyed to prevent incorrect insertion — know each by name and pin count.

Connector	Pins	Powers	Notes
ATX 24-pin (P1)	24	Motherboard	Originally 20-pin; backward-compatible adapters exist
EPS 4-pin / 8-pin	4 or 8	CPU VRM	Located at upper-left of board; missing = no POST
SATA Power	15	SATA drives	L-shaped; wider than 7-pin data connector
Molex	4	Legacy drives, fans	Older format; adapters convert to SATA power
PCIe 6-pin	6	Mid-range GPU	75W supplemental (slot provides 75W = 150W total)
PCIe 8-pin	8	High-end GPU	150W supplemental (slot + connector = 225W)
PCIe 12VHPWR	16	High-power GPU	Up to 600W; RTX 4000-series and newer

Exam Distinction

SATA power = 15 pins. SATA data = 7 pins. Do not confuse them on the exam. The power connector is wider. Molex is 4 pins with a D-shaped housing. PCIe 6-pin and 8-pin are GPU supplemental power — entirely different from the EPS 4/8-pin CPU connector despite similar pin counts.

Slide 14 of 22

UPS & Redundant Power

Battery backup, power conditioning, and server-grade dual PSU configurations.

UPS — Uninterruptible Power Supply

Provides battery backup during power outages, allowing graceful shutdown or continued operation. Includes surge protection, line conditioning (filters noise), and voltage regulation. Rated in VA (volt-amperes) and watts. Essential for servers, workstations, and network equipment. Types: Standby (offline), Line-interactive, Online (double-conversion).

Redundant PSU (Servers)

Enterprise servers often install two PSUs in a hot-swap bay. If one PSU fails, the second seamlessly takes over — zero downtime. Both PSUs share load while running. Failed unit can be swapped while server remains online. Common in 1U/2U rack servers. Each PSU has its own AC input; recommended to use separate circuits or UPS units.

Standby (Offline) UPS

Passes AC through directly until power fails, then switches to battery. Switch time: 10–25 ms. Most affordable. Adequate for workstations where brief interruption is acceptable. Not suitable for sensitive server loads.

Line-Interactive UPS

Includes automatic voltage regulation (AVR) to handle brownouts and surges without switching to battery. Switch time: <4 ms. Most common for server closets and network equipment racks.

Online (Double-Conversion)

Continuously runs through the inverter. Always on battery (battery always being charged). Zero transfer time. Most expensive. Best isolation from power quality issues. Used for medical, financial, and critical infrastructure systems.

Slide 15 of 22

Storage Speed Comparison

Understanding the performance tiers helps match storage to workload requirements.

Interface	Max Sequential Read	Latency	Typical Use
7,200 RPM HDD (SATA)	~150 MB/s	~10 ms	Bulk storage, archives, NAS
SATA SSD	~550 MB/s	~0.1 ms	OS drives, budget upgrades
NVMe PCIe 3.0 x4	~3,500 MB/s	~0.02 ms	Primary OS + apps, gaming
NVMe PCIe 4.0 x4	~7,000 MB/s	~0.02 ms	High-end workstations
NVMe PCIe 5.0 x4	~12,000+ MB/s	~0.01 ms	Enterprise, content creation

Hybrid Drives (SSHD)

Solid State Hybrid Drives combine a traditional HDD with a small SSD cache (8–32 GB). Frequently accessed data is cached on the SSD portion, improving effective speed. Lower cost than a full SSD for the same capacity. Less common now that SSD prices have dropped significantly.

SAS — Serial Attached SCSI

Enterprise storage interface. SAS-1: 3 Gbps. SAS-2: 6 Gbps. SAS-3: 12 Gbps. SAS-4: 22.5 Gbps. SAS controllers accept SATA drives, but SATA controllers do NOT accept SAS drives. SAS uses dual-port connections for redundant paths — critical for server uptime.

Slide 16 of 22

Troubleshooting Storage Issues

Common failure symptoms and their root causes for HDDs, SSDs, and RAID arrays.

HDD Failure Symptoms

Clicking or grinding noise: mechanical failure — imminent data loss. Power it down immediately and recover data. Slow read/write: check SMART data for reallocated sectors. "Drive not detected" in BIOS: check SATA data cable and power connector. Data corruption: surface scan with tools like CrystalDiskInfo.

SSD Failure Symptoms

Drive not detected: check M.2 key/protocol compatibility or reseat the module. Files corrupted or unreadable: check SMART/health status — nearing write endurance limit. Performance degradation: TRIM may be disabled or drive is nearly full (below 10% free space degrades NVMe). Heat throttling on PCIe 4.0+ drives — add heatsink.

RAID Failure Symptoms

RAID degraded warning: one drive failed — replace immediately (RAID 5 has no more fault tolerance until rebuild completes). RAID 0 with failed drive: all data lost, restore from backup. Slow write performance after rebuild: normal during RAID 5 rebuild process. Two drives fail in RAID 5: array lost, restore from backup.

A workstation boots but Windows shows "disk read error." The technician opens the case and hears a repetitive clicking sound from the HDD. This is the "click of death" — the read/write head is failing to find its home position. Pull power immediately, clone to a new drive if possible, then replace. Do not attempt chkdsk on a mechanically failing drive.

Slide 17 of 22

Troubleshooting Power Issues

PSU failure modes, connector issues, and when no-POST traces back to power.

Dead / No Power

System completely unresponsive: first check the wall outlet and power strip. Test with known-good PSU. PSU fan not spinning: may be fanless design or PSU failed. Some PSUs have a self-test button — short PS_ON to ground on 24-pin to test manually. A failed PSU will sometimes show no signs before completely dying.

Random Shutdowns / Reboots

Insufficient wattage: system becomes unstable under load (gaming, rendering). Capacitor bulge: visible on PSU or motherboard — replace immediately. Overheating PSU: blocked vents, fan failure, or inadequate case airflow. Voltage rail sag: measurable with multimeter on molex or with diagnostic software.

No POST — Power Related

Missing 24-pin: no power to board — nothing starts. Missing EPS 4/8-pin CPU connector: system powers on but immediately shuts down or posts "CPU error." Missing GPU PCIe power: GPU fans may spin but no display output and may beep. Check all connectors first before replacing any component.

Voltage Tolerance

ATX standard allows ±5% tolerance on all rails. Measure with multimeter: 12V rail should read 11.4–12.6V. Values outside this range indicate PSU failure or failing capacitors. +12V is most critical — CPU and GPU draw the majority of current from this rail.

When to Replace

PSU has completely failed. Adding a high-power GPU that exceeds current wattage capacity. System repeatedly under-powers under load (PSU too small). New GPU requires connectors the old PSU lacks (12VHPWR). Age: most PSUs degrade after 5–7 years of continuous use.

Slide 18 of 22

Expansion Cards: A+ Exam Focus

Key facts about GPU, NIC, capture, and USB expansion cards for the 220-1101.

Card Type	Typical Slot	Key Exam Facts
GPU / Video Card	PCIe x16	Own VRAM; may need 6-pin or 8-pin supplemental power; multiple display outputs
Sound Card	PCIe x1	Upgrades integrated audio; higher sample rates; 3.5mm or optical S/PDIF output
Wired NIC	PCIe x1	Adds Ethernet; speeds: 1G, 2.5G, 10G; RJ-45 port on bracket
Wireless NIC	PCIe x1 or M.2 E/A-key	Wi-Fi 5/6; antenna connectors; may need to disable integrated Wi-Fi in BIOS
Capture Card	PCIe x4	HDMI input; passthrough output; for streaming and recording
USB Expansion	PCIe x1	Adds USB 3.x or USB-C ports; internal headers available on some models
RAID Controller	PCIe x4/x8	Hardware RAID; own CPU and cache; transparent to OS

Up-Plugging Rule (Revisited)

A PCIe x1 card fits and functions in a PCIe x16 slot (up-plugging). A PCIe x16 card does NOT fit in a PCIe x1 slot without physical modification. This rule applies to all expansion cards, not just GPUs.

Slide 19 of 22

Storage Decision Guide

Matching storage technology to real-world requirements — a practical framework.

OS Drive

Always use an SSD. Minimum: SATA SSD for budget builds. Recommended: NVMe PCIe 3.0 or 4.0 for all new builds. The OS drive impacts every user interaction — boot time, application launch, file open. An HDD OS drive in 2025 is a significant user experience liability.

Bulk / Archive Storage

HDDs remain cost-effective at >2 TB. 3.5" desktop drives offer best $/TB. Use for documents, photos, video archives, and NAS arrays where speed is not critical. Consider 5,400 RPM for NAS (lower power, heat, and noise). Enterprise drives (WD Red, Seagate IronWolf) for 24/7 NAS use.

High-Performance Workstation

NVMe PCIe 4.0 or 5.0 for primary drive. RAID 0 NVMe in PCIe bifurcation setups for extreme sequential throughput (video editing, 3D rendering). Secondary HDD for project storage. Separate NVMe for OS to prevent fragmentation. Match PSU wattage to GPU + CPU TDP + all storage.

Connectivity Check Before Purchase

Before recommending any storage upgrade: verify SATA port availability, M.2 slot count, whether slots support NVMe or SATA only, PCIe generation, and available power connectors from the PSU. A storage recommendation without checking the motherboard spec sheet is an incomplete recommendation.

Slide 20 of 22

Exam Practice: Quick Questions

Six A+ style scenario questions — answers in gold.

Q1

A technician installs a new GPU but the system powers on with no display output and the GPU fan barely spins. Most likely cause? — PCIe supplemental power connector not connected. Connect the 6-pin or 8-pin power cable from the PSU to the GPU.

Q2

A server has 4 identical 4 TB drives. Management wants fault tolerance and the best read/write performance. Which RAID is best? — RAID 10. 8 TB usable, survives one drive failure per mirror pair, best I/O performance.

Q3

A user purchases an NVMe M.2 SSD for their laptop but it is not detected. The slot accepts M.2 but the board only supports SATA M.2. What is the issue? — The M.2 slot only supports SATA protocol. An NVMe drive requires PCIe/NVMe support in the M.2 slot.

Q4

A 500W Bronze PSU is compared to a 500W Gold PSU running a 250W load. What is the key difference? — The Gold PSU is approximately 90% efficient vs. 85% for Bronze — it converts more AC to usable DC and wastes less as heat.

Q5

RAID 5 with 5 x 2 TB drives fails and one drive needs replacement. How much usable capacity is available? — 8 TB usable — RAID 5 with n drives gives (n-1) drives of usable capacity: 5-1 = 4, but 5 x 2 TB = 10 TB raw, minus 2 TB parity = 8 TB.

Q6

A PCIe x1 network card needs to be installed but only a PCIe x16 slot is free. Can it be installed there? — Yes. Up-plugging is fully supported. The x1 card will function at x1 speed in the x16 slot.

Slide 21 of 22

Key Vocabulary

Chapter 2 terms organized by category.

Expansion & Slots

PCIe x1 / x4 / x16 — expansion slot widths
Up-plugging — smaller card in larger slot
GPU, NIC, Sound, Capture — common card types
Riser card — changes card orientation in small cases
ESD — electrostatic discharge; destroys components

Storage

SATA I/II/III — 1.5 / 3.0 / 6 Gbps
NVMe — PCIe-based protocol for flash
M.2 B/M/E-key — connector key types
RAID 0/1/5/10 — stripe, mirror, parity, combo
TRIM — OS command that improves SSD performance
SAS — enterprise serial storage, backward-compat with SATA

Power

ATX 24-pin — main motherboard power
EPS 4/8-pin — CPU supplemental power
SATA power 15-pin — drive power
Molex 4-pin — legacy device power
80 PLUS — efficiency certification tiers
UPS — battery backup + surge/line protection

Slide 22 of 22 — Chapter 2 Complete

Chapter 2 Summary

Eight key takeaways from Expansion Cards, Storage & Power.

1

Expansion cards use PCIe slots (x1, x4, x16). Up-plugging is supported — a smaller card works in a larger slot. Always power off and unplug before installing cards.

2

SATA III maxes out at 6 Gbps (~550 MB/s practical). NVMe over PCIe is the performance standard: PCIe 4.0 x4 delivers ~7 GB/s — 12x faster than SATA.

3

M.2 slots can support SATA or NVMe — not interchangeable. A physical fit does not guarantee protocol compatibility. Check the board spec before purchase.

4

RAID 0 = speed, no redundancy. RAID 1 = mirror, 50% capacity. RAID 5 = parity, one drive fault tolerance. RAID 10 = best of both, 50% capacity, 4+ drives.

5

RAID is not a backup. A separate backup is always required. RAID protects against drive failure only — not accidental deletion, ransomware, or physical disaster.

6

80 PLUS certification measures PSU efficiency. Higher tier = less waste heat, lower electricity cost. Know the tiers: White, Bronze, Silver, Gold, Platinum, Titanium.

7

SATA power = 15 pins. SATA data = 7 pins. PCIe GPU supplemental power uses 6-pin or 8-pin. Missing CPU EPS connector prevents POST. Know all connector names and counts.

8

SAS controllers accept SATA drives; SATA controllers do NOT accept SAS drives. UPS provides battery backup, surge protection, and line conditioning for critical systems.